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Postmodernism Is a Major Trend in the Arts in the 2nd Half of the 20th Century

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Philosophical and creative movement

Postmodernism is an intellectual stance or manner of discourse[1] [ii] divers past an attitude of skepticism toward what it considers every bit the grand narratives and ideologies of modernism, as well as opposition to epistemic certainty and the stability of meaning.[3] [iv] Claims to objective fact are dismissed every bit naive realism.[4] [5] Postmodernism is characterized past self-referentiality, epistemological relativism, moral relativism, pluralism, irony, blasphemy, and eclecticism;[four] it rejects the "universal validity" of binary oppositions, stable identity, hierarchy, and categorization.[vi] [seven]

Postmodernism developed in the mid-twentieth century as a rejection of modernism[8] [9] [x] [11] and was so extended across many disciplines.[12] [13] Postmodernism is associated with deconstructionism and post-structuralism.[4] Diverse authors take criticized postmodernism as promoting obscurantism, as abandoning Enlightenment rationalism and scientific rigor, and every bit adding nothing to analytical or empirical cognition.[14] [15] [sixteen] [17] [18] [19]

Definition [edit]

Postmodernism is an intellectual stance or mode of discourse[1] [2] which challenges worldviews associated with Enlightenment rationality dating back to the 17th century.[iv] Postmodernism is associated with relativism and a focus on ideology in the maintenance of economic and political ability.[four] Postmodernists are "skeptical of explanations which claim to exist valid for all groups, cultures, traditions, or races, and instead focuses on the relative truths of each person".[xx] It considers "reality" to be a mental construct.[20] Postmodernism rejects the possibility of unmediated reality or objectively-rational knowledge, asserting that all interpretations are contingent on the perspective from which they are fabricated;[5] claims to objective fact are dismissed every bit naive realism.[4]

Postmodern thinkers ofttimes draw cognition claims and value systems as contingent or socially-conditioned, describing them as products of political, historical, or cultural discourses and hierarchies.[4] Accordingly, postmodern thought is broadly characterized past tendencies to cocky-referentiality, epistemological and moral relativism, pluralism, and irreverence.[iv] Postmodernism is often associated with schools of thought such as deconstruction and post-structuralism.[4] Postmodernism relies on critical theory, which considers the effects of credo, society, and history on culture.[21] Postmodernism and critical theory unremarkably criticize universalist ideas of objective reality, morality, truth, human nature, reason, language, and social progress.[4]

Initially, postmodernism was a mode of discourse on literature and literary criticism, commenting on the nature of literary text, meaning, writer and reader, writing, and reading.[8] Postmodernism adult in the mid- to late-twentieth century across many scholarly disciplines as a departure or rejection of modernism.[ix] [10] [11] [12] [xiii] As a critical practice, postmodernism employs concepts such as hyperreality, simulacrum, trace, and departure, and rejects abstract principles in favor of direct experience.[20]

Origins of term [edit]

The term postmodern was first used in 1870.[22] John Watkins Chapman suggested "a Postmodern style of painting" as a manner to depart from French Impressionism.[23] J. M. Thompson, in his 1914 article in The Hibbert Journal (a quarterly philosophical review), used information technology to draw changes in attitudes and beliefs in the critique of religion, writing: "The raison d'être of Post-Modernism is to escape from the double-mindedness of Modernism past being thorough in its criticism by extending it to religion too as theology, to Cosmic feeling as well as to Cosmic tradition."[24]

In 1942 H. R. Hays described postmodernism every bit a new literary form.[25]

In 1926, Bernard Iddings Bell, president of St. Stephen'south Higher (now Bard College), published Postmodernism and Other Essays, marking the first use of the term to depict the historical period following Modernity.[26] [27] The essay criticizes the lingering socio-cultural norms, attitudes, and practices of the Age of Enlightenment. It likewise forecasts the major cultural shifts toward Postmodernity and (Bell beingness an Anglican Episcopal priest[28] [29]) suggests orthodox religion as a solution.[thirty] Yet, the term postmodernity was first used as a full general theory for a historical movement in 1939 by Arnold J. Toynbee: "Our ain Mail service-Modern Historic period has been inaugurated by the full general war of 1914–1918".[31]

In 1949 the term was used to describe a dissatisfaction with modernistic compages and led to the postmodern architecture movement[32] in response to the modernist architectural movement known every bit the International Style. Postmodernism in compages was initially marked by a re-emergence of surface ornament, reference to surrounding buildings in urban settings, historical reference in decorative forms (eclecticism), and non-orthogonal angles.[33]

Writer Peter Drucker suggested the transformation into a post-modern world that happened between 1937 and 1957 and described it every bit a "nameless era" characterized equally a shift to a conceptual world based on pattern, purpose, and process rather than a mechanical cause. This shift was outlined by four new realities: the emergence of an Educated Society, the importance of international development, the turn down of the nation-state, and the collapse of the viability of not-Western cultures.[34]

In 1971, in a lecture delivered at the Institute of Contemporary Art, London, Mel Bochner described "post-modernism" in art equally having started with Jasper Johns, "who kickoff rejected sense-data and the singular bespeak-of-view every bit the basis for his fine art, and treated fine art as a disquisitional investigation".[35]

In 1996, Walter Truett Anderson described postmodernism every bit belonging to one of four typological earth views which he identified as:

  • Neo-romantic, in which truth is establish through attaining harmony with nature or spiritual exploration of the inner self.[36]
  • Postmodern-ironist, which sees truth every bit socially synthetic.
  • Scientific-rational, in which truth is defined through methodical, disciplined inquiry.
  • Social-traditional, in which truth is found in the heritage of American and Western civilization.

History [edit]

The basic features of what is now called postmodernism tin can exist found as early every bit the 1940s, most notably in the work of artists such equally Jorge Luis Borges.[37] Notwithstanding, nearly scholars today agree postmodernism began to compete with modernism in the late 1950s and gained ascendancy over information technology in the 1960s.[38]

The primary features of postmodernism typically include the ironic play with styles, citations, and narrative levels,[39] [40] a metaphysical skepticism or nihilism towards a "grand narrative" of Western culture,[41] and a preference for the virtual at the expense of the Existent (or more than accurately, a fundamental questioning of what 'the real' constitutes).[42]

Since the late 1990s, there has been a growing sentiment in popular culture and in academia that postmodernism "has gone out of mode".[43] Others argue that postmodernism is expressionless in the context of current cultural production.[44] [45] [46]

Theories and derivatives [edit]

Structuralism and mail-structuralism [edit]

Structuralism was a philosophical movement developed by French academics in the 1950s, partly in response to French existentialism,[47] and ofttimes interpreted in relation to modernism and high modernism. Thinkers who have been called "structuralists" include the anthropologist Claude Lévi-Strauss, the linguist Ferdinand de Saussure, the Marxist philosopher Louis Althusser, and the semiotician Algirdas Greimas. The early writings of the psychoanalyst Jacques Lacan and the literary theorist Roland Barthes have also been chosen "structuralist". Those who began equally structuralists but became post-structuralists include Michel Foucault, Roland Barthes, Jean Baudrillard, and Gilles Deleuze. Other postal service-structuralists include Jacques Derrida, Pierre Bourdieu, Jean-François Lyotard, Julia Kristeva, Hélène Cixous, and Luce Irigaray. The American cultural theorists, critics, and intellectuals whom they influenced include Judith Butler, John Fiske, Rosalind Krauss, Avital Ronell, and Hayden White.

Similar structuralists, post-structuralists offset from the assumption that people's identities, values, and economic weather condition make up one's mind each other rather than having intrinsic properties that can exist understood in isolation.[48] Thus the French structuralists considered themselves to be espousing relativism and constructionism. But they however tended to explore how the subjects of their study might exist described, reductively, as a set of essential relationships, schematics, or mathematical symbols. (An example is Claude Lévi-Strauss's algebraic formulation of mythological transformation in "The Structural Written report of Myth"[49]).

Postmodernism entails reconsideration of the unabridged Western value organization (love, marriage, popular culture, shift from an industrial to a service economic system) that took identify since the 1950s and 1960s, with a peak in the Social Revolution of 1968—are described with the term postmodernity,[50] as opposed to postmodernism, a term referring to an opinion or motion.[51] Post-structuralism is characterized by new ways of thinking through structuralism, opposite to the original form.[52]

Deconstruction [edit]

Ane of the most well-known postmodernist concerns is deconstruction, a theory for philosophy, literary criticism, and textual analysis developed past Jacques Derrida.[53] Critics have insisted that Derrida's work is rooted in a statement found in Of Grammatology: " Il n'y a pas de hors-texte " ('there is nada outside the text'). Such critics misinterpret the argument every bit denying any reality outside of books. The statement is actually part of a critique of "inside" and "outside" metaphors when referring to the text, and is a corollary to the observation that in that location is no "inside" of a text likewise.[54] This attending to a text's unacknowledged reliance on metaphors and figures embedded within its discourse is characteristic of Derrida's approach. Derrida'due south method sometimes involves demonstrating that a given philosophical discourse depends on binary oppositions or excluding terms that the discourse itself has alleged to be irrelevant or inapplicable. Derrida'southward philosophy inspired a postmodern motility called deconstructivism among architects, characterized by a design that rejects structural "centers" and encourages decentralized play among its elements. Derrida discontinued his interest with the movement later on the publication of his collaborative project with architect Peter Eisenman in Chora Fifty Works: Jacques Derrida and Peter Eisenman.[55]

Post-postmodernism [edit]

The connection between postmodernism, posthumanism, and cyborgism has led to a challenge to postmodernism, for which the terms Post-postmodernism and postpoststructuralism were start coined in 2003:[56] [57]

In some sense, we may regard postmodernism, posthumanism, poststructuralism, etc., as being of the 'cyborg age' of mind over body. Deconference was an exploration in mail service-cyborgism (i.e. what comes after the postcorporeal era), and thus explored issues of postpostmodernism, postpoststructuralism, and the similar. To understand this transition from 'pomo' (cyborgism) to 'popo' (postcyborgism) nosotros must get-go understand the cyborg era itself.[58]

More recently metamodernism, postal service-postmodernism and the "death of postmodernism" have been widely debated: in 2007 Andrew Hoberek noted in his introduction to a special issue of the journal Twentieth-Century Literature titled "After Postmodernism" that "declarations of postmodernism'south demise have get a critical commonplace". A small group of critics has put along a range of theories that aim to describe culture or society in the alleged aftermath of postmodernism, most notably Raoul Eshelman (performatism), Gilles Lipovetsky (hypermodernity), Nicolas Bourriaud (altermodern), and Alan Kirby (digimodernism, formerly chosen pseudo-modernism). None of these new theories or labels take so far gained very widespread acceptance. Sociocultural anthropologist Nina Müller-Schwarze offers neostructuralism as a possible direction.[59] The exhibition Postmodernism – Fashion and Subversion 1970–1990 at the Victoria and Albert Museum (London, 24 September 2011 – 15 Jan 2012) was billed as the showtime show to document postmodernism as a historical movement.

Philosophy [edit]

In the 1970s a grouping of poststructuralists in French republic developed a radical critique of mod philosophy with roots discernible in Nietzsche, Kierkegaard, and Heidegger, and became known equally postmodern theorists, notably including Jacques Derrida, Michel Foucault, Jean-François Lyotard, Jean Baudrillard, and others. New and challenging modes of thought and writing pushed the development of new areas and topics in philosophy. Past the 1980s, this spread to America (Richard Rorty) and the world.[60]

Jacques Derrida [edit]

Jacques Derrida was a French-Algerian philosopher best known for developing a course of semiotic analysis known as deconstruction, which he discussed in numerous texts, and developed in the context of phenomenology.[61] [62] [63] He is 1 of the major figures associated with postal service-structuralism and postmodern philosophy.[64] [65] [66]

Derrida re-examined the fundamentals of writing and its consequences on philosophy in general; sought to undermine the language of "presence" or metaphysics in an analytical technique which, beginning every bit a signal of departure from Heidegger's notion of Destruktion, came to be known as deconstruction.[67]

Michel Foucault [edit]

Michel Foucault was a French philosopher, historian of ideas, social theorist, and literary critic. First associated with structuralism, Foucault created an oeuvre that today is seen as belonging to post-structuralism and to postmodern philosophy. Considered a leading figure of French theory [fr], his work remains fruitful in the English-speaking academic globe in a large number of sub-disciplines. The Times Higher Education Guide described him in 2009 as the most cited writer in the humanities.[68]

Michel Foucault introduced concepts such every bit discursive authorities, or re-invoked those of older philosophers like episteme and genealogy in order to explain the relationship between meaning, power, and social behavior inside social orders (run across The Gild of Things, The Archæology of Noesis, Discipline and Punish, and The History of Sexuality).[69] [lxx] [71] [72]

Jean-François Lyotard [edit]

Influenced by Nietzsche,[73] Jean-François Lyotard is credited with being the first to utilize the term in a philosophical context, in his 1979 work The Postmodern Status: A Report on Knowledge. In it, he follows Wittgenstein's language games model and spoken communication human action theory, contrasting two different linguistic communication games, that of the expert, and that of the philosopher. He talks nearly the transformation of knowledge into information in the computer historic period and likens the transmission or reception of coded messages (data) to a position within a linguistic communication game.[3]

Lyotard defined philosophical postmodernism in The Postmodern Status, writing: "Simplifying to the extreme, I ascertain postmodern equally incredulity towards metanarratives...." [74] where what he means past metanarrative is something like a unified, complete, universal, and epistemically certain story nigh everything that is. Postmodernists reject metanarratives because they reject the concept of truth that metanarratives presuppose. Postmodernist philosophers, in general, fence that truth is always contingent on historical and social context rather than being accented and universal—and that truth is always partial and "at effect" rather than existence complete and certain.[3]

Richard Rorty [edit]

Richard Rorty argues in Philosophy and the Mirror of Nature that contemporary analytic philosophy mistakenly imitates scientific methods. In addition, he denounces the traditional epistemological perspectives of representationalism and correspondence theory that rely upon the independence of knowers and observers from phenomena and the passivity of natural phenomena in relation to consciousness.

Jean Baudrillard [edit]

Jean Baudrillard, in Simulacra and Simulation, introduced the concept that reality or the principle of the Existent is brusk-circuited past the interchangeability of signs in an era whose communicative and semantic acts are dominated by electronic media and digital technologies. For Baudrillard, "simulation is no longer that of a territory, a referential beingness or a substance. It is the generation by models of a existent without origin or reality: a hyperreal."[75]

Fredric Jameson [edit]

Fredric Jameson set up forth one of the offset expansive theoretical treatments of postmodernism as a historical period, intellectual tendency, and social phenomenon in a series of lectures at the Whitney Museum, later expanded every bit Postmodernism, or, the Cultural Logic of Late Capitalism (1991).[76]

Douglas Kellner [edit]

In Analysis of the Journey, a journal birthed from postmodernism, Douglas Kellner insists that the "assumptions and procedures of modern theory" must exist forgotten. Extensively, Kellner analyzes the terms of this theory in real-life experiences and examples.[77] Kellner used science and applied science studies as a major office of his assay; he urged that the theory is incomplete without it. The scale was larger than just postmodernism alone; it must exist interpreted through cultural studies where science and technology studies play a huge role. The reality of the September xi attacks on the U.s.a. of America is the catalyst for his explanation. In response, Kellner continues to examine the repercussions of understanding the furnishings of the eleven September attacks. He questions if the attacks are only able to be understood in a limited grade of postmodern theory due to the level of irony.[78]

The decision he depicts is unproblematic: postmodernism, as about use it today, volition decide what experiences and signs in one'due south reality will be one's reality as they know it.[79]

Manifestations [edit]

Compages [edit]

Modern Architecture, as established and developed by Walter Gropius and Le Corbusier, was focused on:

  • the attempted harmony of class and office;[80] and,
  • the dismissal of "frivolous ornament."[81] [82] [ folio needed ]
  • the pursuit of a perceived platonic perfection;

They argued for architecture that represented the spirit of the age every bit depicted in cutting-edge technology, be information technology airplanes, cars, ocean liners, or even supposedly artless grain silos.[83] Modernist Ludwig Mies van der Rohe is associated with the phrase "less is more".

Critics of Modernism have:

  • argued that the attributes of perfection and minimalism are themselves subjective;
  • pointed out anachronisms in modernistic thought; and,
  • questioned the benefits of its philosophy.[84] [ full citation needed ]

The intellectual scholarship regarding postmodernism and compages is closely linked with the writings of critic-turned-architect Charles Jencks, beginning with lectures in the early 1970s and his essay "The Ascent of Post Modern Architecture" from 1975.[85] His magnum opus, even so, is the book The Language of Post-Modern Architecture, beginning published in 1977, and since running to seven editions.[86] Jencks makes the indicate that Post-Modernism (like Modernism) varies for each field of art, and that for architecture it is not just a reaction to Modernism but what he terms double coding: "Double Coding: the combination of Mod techniques with something else (usually traditional building) in guild for compages to communicate with the public and a concerned minority, unremarkably other architects."[87] In their book, "Revisiting Postmodernism", Terry Farrell and Adam Furman argue that postmodernism brought a more joyous and sensual experience to the culture, specially in architecture.[88]

Art [edit]

Postmodern fine art is a body of fine art movements that sought to contradict some aspects of modernism or some aspects that emerged or developed in its aftermath. Cultural production manifesting as intermedia, installation art, conceptual fine art, deconstructionist display, and multimedia, especially involving video, are described as postmodern.[89]

Graphic blueprint [edit]

Early mention of postmodernism as an element of graphic design appeared in the British mag, "Design".[ninety] A characteristic of postmodern graphic design is that "retro, techno, punk, grunge, beach, parody, and pastiche were all conspicuous trends. Each had its own sites and venues, detractors and advocates."[91]

Literature [edit]

Jorge Luis Borges' (1939) brusk story "Pierre Menard, Author of the Quixote", is often considered as predicting postmodernism[92] and is a paragon of the ultimate parody.[93] Samuel Beckett is as well considered an important precursor and influence. Novelists who are commonly continued with postmodern literature include Vladimir Nabokov, William Gaddis, Umberto Eco, Pier Vittorio Tondelli, John Hawkes, William S. Burroughs, Kurt Vonnegut, John Barth, Jean Rhys, Donald Barthelme, Eastward. L. Doctorow, Richard Kalich, Jerzy Kosiński, Don DeLillo, Thomas Pynchon[94] (Pynchon'south work has also been described as high modern[95]), Ishmael Reed, Kathy Acker, Ana Lydia Vega, Jáchym Topol and Paul Auster.

In 1971, the Arab-American scholar Ihab Hassan published The Dismemberment of Orpheus: Toward a Postmodern Literature, an early piece of work of literary criticism from a postmodern perspective that traces the evolution of what he calls "literature of silence" through Marquis de Sade, Franz Kafka, Ernest Hemingway, Samuel Beckett, and many others, including developments such as the Theatre of the Absurd and the nouveau roman.

In Postmodernist Fiction (1987), Brian McHale details the shift from modernism to postmodernism, arguing that the former is characterized past an epistemological ascendant and that postmodern works have developed out of modernism and are primarily concerned with questions of ontology.[96] McHale's 2d book, Amalgam Postmodernism (1992), provides readings of postmodern fiction and some gimmicky writers who get under the characterization of cyberpunk. McHale's "What Was Postmodernism?" (2007)[97] follows Raymond Federman's lead in now using the past tense when discussing postmodernism.

Music [edit]

Jonathan Kramer has written that avant-garde musical compositions (which some would consider modernist rather than postmodernist) "defy more than seduce the listener, and they extend by potentially unsettling means the very idea of what music is."[98] In the 1960s, composers such as Terry Riley, Henryk Górecki, Bradley Joseph, John Adams, Steve Reich, Philip Glass, Michael Nyman, and Lou Harrison reacted to the perceived elitism and dissonant sound of atonal academic modernism by producing music with simple textures and relatively consonant harmonies, whilst others, most notably John Cage challenged the prevailing narratives of beauty and objectivity common to Modernism.

Writer on postmodernism, Dominic Strinati, has noted, it is also important "to include in this category the so-called 'art rock' musical innovations and mixing of styles associated with groups like Talking Heads, and performers like Laurie Anderson, together with the self-witting 'reinvention of disco' by the Pet Shop Boys".[99]

In the belatedly-20th century, avant-garde academics labelled American vocaliser Madonna, every bit the "personification of the postmodern",[100] with Christian author Graham Cray saying that "Madonna is possibly the most visible instance of what is called post-modernism",[101] and Martin Amis described her as "mayhap the most postmodern personage on the planet".[101] She was also suggested by assistant professor Olivier Sécardin of Utrecht University to epitomise postmodernism.[102]

Urban planning [edit]

Modernism sought to design and program cities that followed the logic of the new model of industrial mass production; reverting to big-scale solutions, artful standardisation, and prefabricated design solutions.[103] Modernism eroded urban living by its failure to recognise differences and aim towards homogeneous landscapes (Simonsen 1990, 57). Jane Jacobs' 1961 book The Death and Life of Great American Cities [104] was a sustained critique of urban planning equally it had developed within Modernism and marked a transition from modernity to postmodernity in thinking about urban planning (Irving 1993, 479).

The transition from Modernism to Postmodernism is ofttimes said to have happened at three:32 pm on 15 July in 1972, when Pruitt–Igoe, a housing development for low-income people in St. Louis designed by architect Minoru Yamasaki, which had been a prize-winning version of Le Corbusier's 'machine for mod living,' was deemed uninhabitable and was torn downwards (Irving 1993, 480). Since then, Postmodernism has involved theories that embrace and aim to create diversity. It exalts uncertainty, flexibility and change (Hatuka & D'Hooghe 2007) and rejects utopianism while embracing a utopian way of thinking and acting.[105] Postmodernity of 'resistance' seeks to deconstruct Modernism and is a critique of the origins without necessarily returning to them (Irving 1993, 60). Equally a result of Postmodernism, planners are much less inclined to lay a firm or steady merits to there being 1 unmarried 'right way' of engaging in urban planning and are more than open to dissimilar styles and ideas of 'how to plan' (Irving 474).[103] [105] [106] [107]

The postmodern approach to understanding the city were pioneered in the 1980s by what could be called the "Los Angeles School of Urbanism" centered on the UCLA's Urban Planning Section in the 1980s, where contemporary Los Angeles was taken to be the postmodern city par excellence, contra posed to what had been the dominant ideas of the Chicago School formed in the 1920s at the University of Chicago, with its framework of urban ecology and emphasis on functional areas of use within a city, and the concentric circles to understand the sorting of unlike population groups.[108] Edward Soja of the Los Angeles School combined Marxist and postmodern perspectives and focused on the economic and social changes (globalization, specialization, industrialization/deindustrialization, Neo-Liberalism, mass migration) that lead to the creation of big city-regions with their patchwork of population groups and economical uses.[108] [109]

Criticisms [edit]

Criticisms of postmodernism are intellectually diverse, including the argument that postmodernism is meaningless and promotes obscurantism.

In office in reference to post-modernism, conservative English language philosopher Roger Scruton wrote, "A writer who says that there are no truths, or that all truth is 'merely relative,' is asking you not to believe him. So don't."[110] Similarly, Dick Hebdige criticized the vagueness of the term, enumerating a long list of otherwise unrelated concepts that people have designated as postmodernism, from "the décor of a room" or "a 'scratch' video", to fright of nuclear armageddon and the "implosion of pregnant", and stated that anything that could signify all of those things was "a buzzword".[111]

The linguist and philosopher Noam Chomsky has said that postmodernism is meaningless because it adds aught to belittling or empirical knowledge. He asks why postmodernist intellectuals practice not respond similar people in other fields when asked, "what are the principles of their theories, on what show are they based, what do they explain that wasn't already obvious, etc.?...If [these requests] can't be met, and so I'd suggest recourse to Hume'due south advice in like circumstances: 'to the flames'."[112]

Christian philosopher William Lane Craig has said "The idea that we live in a postmodern civilisation is a myth. In fact, a postmodern culture is an impossibility; it would be utterly unliveable. People are not relativistic when it comes to matters of science, engineering, and technology; rather, they are relativistic and pluralistic in matters of organized religion and ethics. But, of form, that's non postmodernism; that's modernism!"[113]

American author Thomas Pynchon targeted postmodernism equally an object of derision in his novels, openly mocking postmodernist discourse.[114]

American academic and aesthete Camille Paglia has said:

The stop result of iv decades of postmodernism permeating the art world is that there is very little interesting or important work being done right now in the fine arts. The irony was a bold and creative posture when Duchamp did it, but it is now an utterly banal, exhausted, and tedious strategy. Young artists have been taught to be "absurd" and "hip" and thus painfully cocky-conscious. They are not encouraged to be enthusiastic, emotional, and visionary. They accept been cut off from artistic tradition by the bedridden skepticism most history that they have been taught past ignorant and solipsistic postmodernists. In short, the fine art world will never revive until postmodernism fades abroad. Postmodernism is a plague upon the mind and the eye.[115]

German philosopher Albrecht Wellmer has said that "postmodernism at its best might exist seen as a self-disquisitional – a sceptical, ironic, but yet unrelenting – form of modernism; a modernism across utopianism, scientism and foundationalism; in brusk a post-metaphysical modernism."[116]

A formal, academic critique of postmodernism can be institute in Beyond the Hoax by physics professor Alan Sokal and in Fashionable Nonsense by Sokal and Belgian physicist Jean Bricmont, both books discussing the and then-called Sokal affair. In 1996, Sokal wrote a deliberately nonsensical article[117] in a style like to postmodernist articles, which was accepted for publication past the postmodern cultural studies journal, Social Text. On the same day of the release he published another article in a unlike journal explaining the Social Text article hoax.[118] [119] The philosopher Thomas Nagel has supported Sokal and Bricmont, describing their book Fashionable Nonsense equally consisting largely of "extensive quotations of scientific gibberish from name-make French intellectuals, together with eerily patient explanations of why it is gibberish,"[120] and agreeing that "there does seem to be something virtually the Parisian scene that is especially hospitable to reckless verbosity."[121]

Zimbabwean-built-in British Marxist Alex Callinicos says that postmodernism "reflects the disappointed revolutionary generation of '68, and the incorporation of many of its members into the professional person and managerial 'new middle class'. It is best read every bit a symptom of political frustration and social mobility rather than every bit a significant intellectual or cultural phenomenon in its own correct."[122]

Analytic philosopher Daniel Dennett said, "Postmodernism, the school of 'thought' that proclaimed 'There are no truths, only interpretations' has largely played itself out in absurdity, but information technology has left behind a generation of academics in the humanities disabled by their distrust of the very idea of truth and their boldness for evidence, settling for 'conversations' in which nobody is wrong and nada can exist confirmed, merely asserted with whatsoever way you lot can muster."[123]

American historian Richard Wolin traces the origins of postmodernism to intellectual roots in fascism, writing "postmodernism has been nourished by the doctrines of Friedrich Nietzsche, Martin Heidegger, Maurice Blanchot, and Paul de Human being—all of whom either prefigured or succumbed to the proverbial intellectual fascination with fascism."[124]

Daniel A. Farber and Suzanna Sherry criticised postmodernism for reducing the complexity of the modern earth to an expression of power and for undermining truth and reason:

If the modernistic era begins with the European Enlightenment, the postmodern era that captivates the radical multiculturalists begins with its rejection. Co-ordinate to the new radicals, the Enlightenment-inspired ideas that accept previously structured our earth, particularly the legal and bookish parts of information technology, are a fraud perpetrated and perpetuated by white males to consolidate their own power. Those who disagree are not only blind merely bigoted. The Enlightenment's goal of an objective and reasoned basis for knowledge, merit, truth, justice, and the like is an impossibility: "objectivity," in the sense of standards of judgment that transcend individual perspectives, does not exist. Reason is but some other code discussion for the views of the privileged. The Enlightenment itself only replaced one socially synthetic view of reality with another, mistaking ability for knowledge. There is naught only power.[125]

Richard Caputo, William Epstein, David Stoesz & Bruce Thyer consider postmodernism to be a "dead-terminate in social piece of work epistemology." They write:

Postmodernism continues to have a detrimental influence on social work, questioning the Enlightenment, criticizing established research methods, and challenging scientific potency. The promotion of postmodernism by editors of Social Work and the Journal of Social Work Education has elevated postmodernism, placing it on a par with theoretically guided and empirically based research. The inclusion of postmodernism in the 2008 Educational Policy and Accreditation Standards of the Quango on Social Work Education and its 2015 sequel further erode the knowledge-edifice chapters of social work educators. In relation to other disciplines that have exploited empirical methods, social work's stature will proceed to ebb until postmodernism is rejected in favor of scientific methods for generating knowledge.[126]

H. Sidky pointed out what he sees equally several inherent flaws of a postmodern antiscience perspective, including the confusion of the potency of science (evidence) with the scientist carrying the knowledge; its cocky-contradictory claim that all truths are relative; and its strategic ambivalence. He sees 21st-century anti-scientific and pseudo-scientific approaches to knowledge, particularly in the United states of america, equally rooted in a postmodernist "decades-long academic assault on science:"

Many of those indoctrinated in postmodern anti-science went on to become bourgeois political and religious leaders, policymakers, journalists, periodical editors, judges, lawyers, and members of metropolis councils and schoolhouse boards. Sadly, they forgot the lofty ethics of their teachers, except that scientific discipline is bogus.[127]

Criticism past thinkers who were associated with postmodernism themselves [edit]

The French psychotherapist and philosopher, Félix Guattari, rejected its theoretical assumptions by arguing that the structuralist and postmodernist visions of the globe were non flexible enough to seek explanations in psychological, social, and environmental domains at the same time.[128]

In an interview, Jean Baudrillard noted: "[ Transmodernism etc] are meliorate terms than "postmodernism". It is non virtually modernity; it is about every arrangement that has developed its mode of expression to the extent that information technology surpasses itself and its own logic. This is what I am trying to analyze." "There is no longer any ontologically secret substance. I perceive this to be nihilism rather than postmodernism. To me, nihilism is a good thing – I am a nihilist, non a postmodernist."[129]

Run into also [edit]

References [edit]

  1. ^ a b Nuyen, A.T., 1992. The Function of Rhetorical Devices in Postmodernist Soapbox. Philosophy & Rhetoric, pp.183–194.
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Farther reading [edit]

  • "Graphic Pattern in the Postmodern Era". Emigre (47). 1998.
  • Alexie, Sherman (2000). "The Toughest Indian in the World" (ISBN 0-8021-3800-4)
  • Anderson, Perry. The origins of postmodernity. London: Verso, 1998.
  • Anderson, Walter Truett. The Truth about the Truth (New Consciousness Reader). New York: Tarcher. (1995) (ISBN 0-87477-801-eight)
  • Arena, Leonardo Vittorio (2015) On Nudity. An Introduction to Nonsense, Mimesis International.
  • Ashley, Richard and Walker, R. B. J. (1990) "Speaking the Linguistic communication of Exile." International Studies Quarterly v 34, no 3 259–68.
  • Bauman, Zygmunt (2000) Liquid Modernity. Cambridge: Polity Printing.
  • Beck, Ulrich (1986) Risk Society: Towards a New Modernity.
  • Benhabib, Seyla (1995) "Feminism and Postmodernism" in (ed. Nicholson) Feminism Contentions: A Philosophical Substitution. New York: Routledge.
  • Berman, Marshall (1982) All That Is Solid Melts into Air: The Feel of Modernity (ISBN 0-14-010962-5).
  • Bertens, Hans (1995) The Idea of the Postmodern: A History. London: Routledge. (ISBN 978-0-415-06012-7).
  • Best, Steven and Douglas Kellner. Postmodern Theory (1991) excerpt and text search
  • Best, Steven, and Douglas Kellner. The Postmodern Turn (1997) excerpt and text search
  • All-time, Steven, and Douglas Kellner. The Postmodern Take a chance: Scientific discipline, Technology, and Cultural Studies at the Third Millennium Guilford Press, 2001 (ISBN 978-1-57230-665-3)
  • Bielskis, Andrius (2005) Towards a Postmodern Understanding of the Political: From Genealogy to Hermeneutics (Palgrave Macmillan, 2005).
  • Brass, Tom, Peasants, Populism and Postmodernism (London: Cass, 2000).
  • Butler, Judith (1995) 'Contingent Foundations' in (ed. Nicholson) Feminist Contentions: A Philosophical Commutation. New York: Routledge.
  • Callinicos, Alex, Against Postmodernism: A Marxist Critique (Cambridge: Polity, 1999).
  • Dirlik, Arif; Zhang, Xudong, eds. (2000). Postmodernism & People's republic of china. Durham, NC: Duke University Printing. ISBN0-8223-8022-6. OCLC 52341080.
  • Drabble, Thou. The Oxford Companion to English Literature, half-dozen ed., article "Postmodernism".
  • Farrell, John. "Paranoia and Postmodernism," the epilogue to Paranoia and Modernity: Cervantes to Rousseau (Cornell UP, 2006), 309–327.
  • Featherstone, M. (1991) Consumer culture and postmodernism, London; Newbury Park, Calif., Sage Publications.
  • Giddens, Anthony (1991) Modernity and Self Identity, Cambridge: Polity Press.
  • Gosselin, Paul (2012) Flight From the Accented: Cynical Observations on the Postmodern Due west. book I. Samizdat Flying From the Accented: Cynical Observations on the Postmodern West. Volume I (ISBN 978-ii-9807774-3-i)
  • Goulimari, Pelagia (ed.) (2007) Postmodernism. What Moment? Manchester: Manchester University Press (ISBN 978-0-7190-7308-three)
  • Grebowicz, Margaret (ed.), Gender After Lyotard. NY: Suny Press, 2007. (ISBN 978-0-7914-6956-9)
  • Greer, Robert C. Mapping Postmodernism. IL: Intervarsity Press, 2003. (ISBN 0-8308-2733-1)
  • Groothuis, Douglas. Truth Decay. Downers Grove, Illinois: InterVarsity Press, 2000.
  • Harvey, David (1989) The Status of Postmodernity: An Enquiry into the Origins of Cultural Change (ISBN 0-631-16294-1)
  • Honderich, T., The Oxford Companion to Philosophy, article "Postmodernism".
  • Hutcheon, Linda. The Politics of Postmodernism. (2002) online edition
  • Jameson, Fredric (1991) Postmodernism, or, the Cultural Logic of Late Capitalism (ISBN 0-8223-1090-two)
  • Jarzombek, Marking (2016). Digital Stockholm Syndrome in the Mail service-Ontological Age. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press.
  • Kimball, Roger (2000). Experiments confronting Reality: the Fate of Culture in the Postmodern Age. Chicago: I.R. Dee. eight, 359 p. (ISBN one-56663-335-4)
  • Kirby, Alan (2009) Digimodernism. New York: Continuum.
  • Lash, S. (1990) The sociology of postmodernism London, Routledge.
  • Lucy, Niall. (2016) A dictionary of Postmodernism (ISBN 978-ane-4051-5077-4)
  • Lyotard, Jean-François (1984) The Postmodern Condition: A Written report on Noesis (ISBN 0-8166-1173-4)
  • Lyotard, Jean-François (1988). The Postmodern Explained: Correspondence 1982–1985. Ed. Julian Pefanis and Morgan Thomas. (ISBN 0-8166-2211-half-dozen)
  • Lyotard, Jean-François (1993), "Scriptures: Diffracted Traces." In: Theory, Culture and Guild, Vol. 21(1), 2004.
  • Lyotard, Jean-François (1995), "Anamnesis: Of the Visible." In: Theory, Culture and Gild, Vol. 21(1), 2004.
  • MacIntyre, Alasdair, After Virtue: A Study in Moral Theory (University of Notre Dame Press, 1984, 2nd edn.).
  • Magliola, Robert On Deconstructing Life-Worlds: Buddhism, Christianity, Culture (Atlanta: Scholars Press of American University of Faith, 1997; Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000; ISBN 0-7885-0295-six, cloth, ISBN 0-7885-0296-4, pbk).
  • Magliola, Robert, Derrida on the Mend (Lafayette: Purdue University Press, 1984; 1986; pbk. 2000, ISBN I-55753-205-2).
  • Manuel, Peter. "Music as Symbol, Music as Simulacrum: Pre-Modern, Modern, and Postmodern Aesthetics in Subcultural Musics," Popular Music i/2, 1995, pp. 227–239.
  • McHale, Brian (1992), Amalgam Postmodernism. NY & London: Routledge.
  • McHale, Brian (2007), "What Was Postmodernism?" electronic book review, [1] Archived 18 July 2018 at the Wayback Machine
  • McHale, Brian (2008), "1966 Nervous Breakdown, or, When Did Postmodernism Begin?" Modern Language Quarterly 69, iii:391–413.
  • McHale, Brian, (1987) Postmodernist Fiction. London: Routledge.
  • Mura, Andrea (2012). "The Symbolic Function of Transmodernity" (PDF). Language and Psychoanalysis (ane): 68–87. doi:x.7565/landp.2012.0005. Archived from the original (PDF) on 8 Oct 2015.
  • Potato, Nancey, Anglo-American Postmodernity: Philosophical Perspectives on Scientific discipline, Religion, and Ethics (Westview Press, 1997).
  • Natoli, Joseph (1997) A Primer to Postmodernity (ISBN one-57718-061-5)
  • Norris, Christopher (1990) What's Wrong with Postmodernism: Disquisitional Theory and the Ends of Philosophy (ISBN 0-8018-4137-2)
  • Pangle, Thomas Fifty., The Ennobling of Democracy: The Challenge of the Postmodern Age, Baltimore, The Johns Hopkins University Printing, 1991 ISBN 0-8018-4635-viii
  • Park, Jin Y., ed., Buddhisms and Deconstructions Lanham: Rowland & Littlefield, 2006, ISBN 978-0-7425-3418-6; ISBN 0-7425-3418-9.
  • Pérez, Rolando. Ed. Agorapoetics: Poetics after Postmodernism. Aurora: The Davies Group, Publishers. 2017. ISBN 978-ane-934542-38-v.
  • Philip B. Meggs; Alston West. Purvis (2011). "22". Meggs' History of Graphic Blueprint (five ed.). John Wiley & Sons, Incorporated. ISBN978-0-470-16873-viii.
  • Powell, Jim (1998). "Postmodernism For Beginners" (ISBN 978-one-934389-09-half dozen)
  • Sim, Stuart. (1999). "The Routledge critical dictionary of postmodern thought" (ISBN 0-415-92353-0)
  • Sokal, Alan and Jean Bricmont (1998) Fashionable Nonsense: Postmodern Intellectuals' Abuse of Scientific discipline (ISBN 0-312-20407-8)
  • Stephen, Hicks (2014). "Explaining Postmodernism: Skepticism and Socialism from Rousseau to Foucault (Expanded Edition)", Ockham's Razor Publishing
  • Vattimo, Gianni (1989). The Transparent Lodge (ISBN 0-8018-4528-9)
  • Veith Jr., Factor Edward (1994) Postmodern Times: A Christian Guide to Contemporary Thought and Culture (ISBN 0-89107-768-5)
  • Windschuttle, Keith (1996) The Killing of History: How Literary Critics and Social Theorists are Murdering Our Past. New York: The Gratis Press.
  • Woods, Tim, Beginning Postmodernism, Manchester: Manchester Academy Press, 1999, (Reprinted 2002)(ISBN 0-7190-5210-6 Hardback, ISBN 0-7190-5211-4 Paperback).

External links [edit]

  • Discourses of Postmodernism. Multilingual bibliography by Janusz Przychodzen (PDF file)
  • Modernity, postmodernism and the tradition of dissent, past Lloyd Spencer (1998)
  • Postmodernism and truth by philosopher Daniel Dennett
  • Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy's entry on postmodernism

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Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Postmodernism

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